# Read psychology as evidence, not a collection of labels — Study worksheet

[Study guides](https://unireadinglist.com/guides/psychology-foundations/)

[Course topic: Introduction to Psychology](https://unireadinglist.com/subjects/psychology/#course-intro-psychology)

Sources checked: 2026-11-03

Study route and exercise: University Reading List editorial project.

For a first encounter with academic psychology. The map uses OpenStax Psychology 2e, Myers, DeWall and Gruber’s US Psychology 14th edition, and Butler and McManus’s Psychology: A Very Short Introduction, second edition. This is a research-literacy route, not self-diagnosis, clinical training or an official course. All tasks and the numerical case are proposed by this site.

## Choose your starting point

- [ ] I want a free first psychology textbook
  Use Psychology 2e as the main survey and begin with its research chapter before topic chapters. Its free web/PDF access lets you test whether the subject interests you before obtaining another broad textbook.

- [ ] My course uses Myers, DeWall and Gruber
  Follow the assigned US 14th edition and its module numbers. Check the syllabus for any separate platform requirement; a paperback ISBN does not guarantee an Achieve entitlement.

- [ ] I need orientation before a full textbook
  Read the Very Short Introduction first to map the questions, then move to OpenStax for methods, practice and the topic you choose. A compact overview is a starting decision aid, not equivalent coverage of an introductory course.

## Compare the three books

### Psychology 2e

Rose M. Spielman; William J. Jenkins; Marilyn D. Lovett · 2 · 2020
Free broad survey

Choose it when: You want a main text and can combine reading with your own notes and evidence checks.
Use another route when: An instructor requires specific Myers module questions or a digital-course activity.
Selected reading: Start with chapters 1–2, then connect chapters 3 and 5, 6 and 8, and 9 and 12. Return to sections 2.3–2.4 when evaluating a claim.
Limits and trade-offs: Broad access is useful, but publication year does not mean every web passage is frozen in that year. Match the current chapter heading and record what source you actually used.

#### Try before choosing

Use OpenStax sections 2.3–2.4 to turn “students who chose the method scored higher” into a design diagram: selection, procedure, setting and outcome. Mark what would need random allocation.
Check your work: Choosing a method is not random assignment. Your diagram must distinguish an observed association, a proposed manipulation and at least one alternative explanation.

Your notes:

________________________________

ISBN: 9781975076450

[Official free reading](https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology-2e)

[Book record and access options](https://unireadinglist.com/subjects/psychology/psychology-2e/)

### Psychology

David G. Myers; C. Nathan DeWall; June Gruber · 14 · 2024
Assigned-course route

Choose it when: Your class uses the US 14th edition, or you already have it and want its chapter/module structure.
Use another route when: You already have a workable introductory text and no assignment depends on this edition.
Selected reading: Use chapter 1, modules 1–3 for methods; chapters 2 and 6 for biological/perceptual links; 7–8 for learning/memory; 5 and 13 for development and social context.
Limits and trade-offs: The publisher lists both book-only and courseware formats. Its 16 chapters contain 56 modules; module numbers should not be confused with OpenStax chapter numbers.

#### Try before choosing

From an available US 14e sample or legitimate copy, locate Myers’s methods modules and match a study claim to the module question it needs. Write one proposed operational definition for “remembering”.
Check your work: Give a scoring rule and delay rather than a label alone; distinguish sampling from assignment. If your task depends on numbered course modules, the edition match is useful; it is not a demonstrated learning advantage.

Your notes:

________________________________

ISBN: 9781319426897

[Book record and access options](https://unireadinglist.com/subjects/psychology/psychology-myers-dewall/)

### Psychology: A Very Short Introduction

Gillian Butler; Freda McManus · 2 · 2014
Compact conceptual orientation

Choose it when: You need a short view of what psychologists ask before committing to a comprehensive text.
Use another route when: You need a full problem sequence, detailed biological coverage or practice with research analysis.
Selected reading: Select chapters 1–3 for method, perception and memory, then 6, 9 and 10 to connect development, social context and the uses of psychology.
Limits and trade-offs: The second edition is from 2014. Use it for orientation and question framing, and consult more current primary evidence before treating a topical claim as settled.

#### Try before choosing

After the short introduction’s perception or memory chapter, explain one distinction in 100 words for a new reader and end with a question a study could test.
Check your work: The explanation should be intelligible without specialist labels while keeping an observation separate from an explanation. If you require a full study protocol or statistical analysis, the short orientation needs a methods companion.

Your notes:

________________________________

ISBN: 9780199670420

[Book record and access options](https://unireadinglist.com/subjects/psychology/psychology-a-very-short-introduction/)

## Check your preparation

### Is “better memory” already a measured outcome?

Your notes:

________________________________

### Does a correlation identify a cause?

Your notes:

________________________________

### How do percentage points differ from percent change?

Your notes:

________________________________

## Six steps with a concrete output

- [ ] 1. Replace a label with a researchable question

Selected reading: Psychology 2e chapters 1–2; Myers 14e chapter 1; Very Short Introduction chapter 1.

Make this: Write one question, an operational definition of the outcome and two explanations that would predict different observations.

Check your work: Another reader could tell what would be recorded, not just what general quality you hope to describe.

Your notes:

________________________________

- [ ] 2. Audit how the comparison was created

Selected reading: Psychology 2e sections 2.2–2.4; Myers modules 2–3.

Make this: Make a design table: recruitment, allocation, setting, task, timing, outcome and possible exclusions. Apply it to the fictional case below.

Check your work: Distinguish random assignment from random sampling. Name a confound and explain which comparison would remove it.

Your notes:

________________________________

- [ ] 3. Connect a biological description to a behavioral measure

Selected reading: Psychology 2e chapters 3 and 5; Myers chapters 2 and 6; Very Short Introduction chapter 2.

Make this: Draw a chain from a stimulus through a proposed process to a recorded response. Mark the difference between a proposed mechanism and a direct measurement.

Check your work: A diagram or brain-region label does not by itself establish what someone experienced, understood or intended.

Your notes:

________________________________

- [ ] 4. Separate learning from the way memory is tested

Selected reading: Psychology 2e chapters 6 and 8; Myers chapters 7–8; Very Short Introduction chapter 3.

Make this: Compare two hypothetical study procedures using equal material and study time. Specify a later test and a scoring rule before predicting a result.

Check your work: Keep procedure, immediate performance and delayed outcome separate. Do not claim the design has already demonstrated a benefit.

Your notes:

________________________________

- [ ] 5. Put a person back into context

Selected reading: Psychology 2e chapters 9 and 12; Myers chapters 5 and 13; Very Short Introduction chapters 6 and 9.

Make this: Give one individual-level and one situational explanation for a hypothetical behavior. List an observation that would discriminate between them.

Check your work: Avoid treating a group average or an age comparison as a fixed description of every individual or a demonstrated developmental cause.

Your notes:

________________________________

- [ ] 6. Write an evidence card with a boundary

Selected reading: Return to Psychology 2e sections 2.3–2.4; Myers modules 2–3; Very Short Introduction chapter 10.

Make this: Write a one-page claim, design summary, numerical result, alternative explanation and improved study proposal. Include consent, privacy and a replication question.

Check your work: Separate what the supplied data establish from what needs a different study. State what result would change your conclusion rather than only defend your first explanation.

Your notes:

________________________________

## Worked exercise: Original example: a score difference is not a causal effect

A fictional report compares two self-selected groups of 20 students. A retrieval-practice group studies in a quiet morning room and averages 14/20 on a later quiz. A rereading group studies in a noisy afternoon room and averages 11/20. Can the report show that retrieval practice caused better recall?

Assumptions: These are invented group summaries, not real participants or a published experiment. Both groups use the same quiz and scoring scale, but prior knowledge is unknown. Assignment is not random, settings differ and no individual scores or variability are supplied.

Your notes:

________________________________

## Change an assumption: Follow-up: the aggregate reverses within preparation groups

Replace the original summaries with invented scores on a 20-point quiz. Retrieval: 16 high-preparation students average 16, and 4 low-preparation students average 8. Rereading: 4 high-preparation students average 17, and 16 low-preparation students average 9. Assume the same setting and scoring now, but retain self-selection. Compare pooled means, within-group differences and a common 50/50 preparation mix.

Your notes:

________________________________

## Before moving on

- Choose a short orientation or one main survey without treating all three books as required purchases.
- Produce an operational definition, a comparison audit and an evidence card that keep observation, inference and assumptions separate.
- Recalculate the fictional score difference and explain both the missing causal comparison and the missing information for uncertainty.

## Answer and interpretation

### Is “better memory” already a measured outcome?

No. Specify what is recalled, after what delay, how it is scored and which comparison is used. Otherwise different studies may be answering different questions.

### Does a correlation identify a cause?

Not by itself. Reverse direction, a shared cause, selection and measurement choices may explain an association; a causal conclusion needs a design and assumptions that address them.

### How do percentage points differ from percent change?

A rise from 55% to 70% is 15 percentage points. Relative to 55%, it is about a 27% increase. State the denominator and choose the description your question requires.

### Original example: a score difference is not a causal effect

1. The observed mean difference is 14 − 11 = 3 quiz points. Dividing by the 20-point scale gives 70% versus 55%, a difference of 15 percentage points.
2. Study procedure, room conditions and time of day change together. Self-selection and unknown prior knowledge add alternative explanations; the comparison does not isolate the study procedure.
3. A better proposed test would randomly assign consenting volunteers, hold material, study duration and setting constant, use the same delayed test and keep scoring unaware of condition where feasible. Specify exclusions and the outcome in advance.
4. Sample sizes and means alone do not provide the score variability needed for an ordinary uncertainty interval or significance calculation. Collect appropriate score data; do not invent a p-value or assume the redesigned study will reproduce the same difference.

The report establishes a descriptive difference of 3 points in this fictional comparison. It does not identify a causal effect of retrieval practice. A cleaner design would address specific alternative explanations, not guarantee a positive result or make this small sample representative of all students.

Test the result: If the second group averaged 12/20, the difference would be 2 points, or 10 percentage points; the design problem would remain. Explain why a large observed difference and a large sample cannot automatically repair a confounded comparison.

### Change an assumption: Follow-up: the aggregate reverses within preparation groups

1. Retrieval’s pooled mean is (16×16 + 4×8)/20 = 14.4; rereading’s is (4×17 + 16×9)/20 = 10.6. The pooled difference is +3.8 points.
2. Within high preparation the difference is 16−17 = −1; within low preparation it is 8−9 = −1. Giving each preparation group half the weight yields retrieval (16+8)/2 = 12 and rereading (17+9)/2 = 13.

The pooled comparison favours retrieval, while both within-preparation comparisons and this standardized mix favour rereading by one point. Different composition explains the reversal in the supplied summaries; adjusting one variable does not establish a causal effect.

Test the result: Both groups still contain 20 students. Recalculate the four weighted totals before interpreting the reversal; no score variances or information about other confounders is supplied.

## Common mistakes

### Applying a familiar label as an explanation

A label should help formulate a testable question, not substitute for evidence. State what was observed and which competing account remains possible.

### Treating a mean as every person’s result

Different distributions can share one mean. Ask about variability, missing outcomes, recruitment and the population before making a broad claim.

### Reading only the topic that matches an opinion

Read methods before selecting supporting examples. Seek a plausible disconfirming result and distinguish a textbook overview from a direct report of a specific study.

## Sources and edition checks

- [OpenStax Psychology 2e: preface and chapter map](https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/preface)
  The publisher’s preface verifies the survey scope, official free formats and chapter map. Our six outputs are independently proposed activities.

- [OpenStax Psychology 2e: research, analysis and ethics](https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/2-introduction)
  The chapter outline distinguishes research approaches, analysis and ethics; the guide returns to these before drawing conclusions.

- [OpenStax Psychology 2e: official PDF and format-specific ISBNs](https://assets.openstax.org/oscms-prodcms/media/documents/Psychology2e_WEB.pdf)
  The current official PDF confirms colour-paperback ISBN 9781975076450, ©2026 and original publication year 2020. The existing ISBN and format label are retained; printing dates are not numbered editions.

- [Macmillan Learning: Psychology, 14th edition, contents and formats](https://store.macmillanlearning.com/us/product/Psychology/p/1319426891)
  Macmillan verifies the three authors, US 14th edition, 16-chapter/56-module map and separate book/courseware formats.

- [Oxford University Press: Psychology: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd edition](https://academic.oup.com/book/610)
  Oxford verifies the 2014 second edition, print ISBN and contents. It supports the orientation route, not a claim of equivalent textbook depth.

- [OpenStax Psychology 2e: analyzing findings](https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/2-3-analyzing-findings)
  This primary methods section supports the distinction between association, assignment and causal inference. Our group numbers and redesign exercise are fictional.

These are proposed study activities, not official course assignments or a claim that every book has been read cover to cover.

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